The Relationship Among Working Memory Free Essays

The general focal point of this examination is to look at execution in standard psychological systems and online assignments. The scientists would like to analyze the impact that math tension applies on scientific discernment and to distinguish the preparing parts that are so affected. Speculation: The higher the math nervousness, the lower the working memory limit, the higher the likelihood to get a low presentation. We will compose a custom article test on The Relationship Among Working Memory or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now Factors: IV †math anxietyDV â€working memory limit, execution The free factor math tension is controlled into three levels: high, medium, low. The degree of tension is resolved using sMARS (short math nervousness rating scale) is a 25-thing adaptation of the most broadly utilized proportion of this develop, 98 thing MARS. The sMARS evaluates an individual’s level of dread and tension about math on a 1-5 Likert scale, requesting participants’ reactions about how on edge they would be made by different settings and encounters. The reliant factors â€â€ working memory limit and performance.Salthouse and Bobcock’s listening length (L-range) and calculation range (C-range) errands evaluated participants’ working memory limit by expecting them to store expanding quantities of words or digits in working memory while handling straightforward verbal or number-crunching assignments. In L-range task, members hear various straightforward sentences, indivi dually, and must answer a basic inquiry concerning current sentence before hearing the following. In C-length test, straightforward number-crunching issues supplant the sentences then the members offer the response to every issue, individually, and must review the last number in every one of the few issues inside that, all together. In explore 2, members see the issue and are coordinated as they produce its answer verbally. In analyze 3, members were given the L-length and C-range in addition to they were given a letter change undertaking to test working memory limit and procedures. In the presentation, inspects through the consequences of the concentrated working memory assignments. Technique: Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 CONCLUSION: The scientists closed with two increasingly broad comments. To begin with, math uneasiness isn't epiphenomenon †it's anything but an intellectual examination about oneself that is disconnected to the idea of mental processing.For model, measurements understudies who do inadequately on a test guarantee that they become confounded, can't concentrate on the job needing to be done, or continue pondering how poor they are at math. Notwithstanding the subjectivity of these cases, they are completely steady with the researchers’ primary outcome: Math tension upsets t he on-going, task-significant exercises of working memory, hindering execution and corrupting its exactness. Second, the specialists note the constructive outcomes of following guidance with which this article started: that impact is a part of critical thinking that merits observational attention.Cognitive examinations that incorporate individual distinction attributes like math nervousness are uncommon, yet may demonstrate valuable in increasing a comprehension of space explicit discernments. Besides, it presently gives the idea that standard appraisals of working memory length, particularly those utilizing number juggling boosts, are touchy to in any event two classes of impacts: the focal limit and handling qualities of the person, no doubt, yet additionally the fleeting impacts of uneasiness in the testing situation.Given present and significant endeavors that relate working memory components to procedures, for example, understanding cognizance, memory recovery, and so forth, it is reasonable to think about how conceivable it is that nervousness or other individual contrast variables mi ght be affecting both the evaluations of individuals’ working memory range and their on-line execution. * The subjects were allocated to the treatment are blended â€- in try 1 the lower level undergrad sychology classes were selected and they are to get a kudos for taking part, in explore 2 they have some subject from test 1 and the extra subjects chipped in their interest as an end-result of additional credit, while in try 3 did again get extra subjects which likewise undergrad brain research graduates . * The specialists utilized ANOVA †segment 3 of table 2 (page 228) presents the connection among's sMARS and the rest of the factors, utilizing math tension gathering (low, medium, high) as a between-subjects variable.They likewise utilized ANOVA two-approach to check whether the decrease in limit contrasted as a component of kind of length task. * The target of the investigation was acknowledged for they have assembled two general comments structure their examinations and they have clarified well the ends they have made with respect to the relationship among working memory, math tension and execution. 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Chemical Bonding Essay Example

Substance Bonding Paper Substance mixes are shaped by the joining of at least two particles. A steady compound happens when the complete vitality of the blend has lower vitality than the isolated particles. The bound state infers a net appealing power between the particles a synthetic bond. The two outrageous instances of concoction bonds are: Covalent bond: bond in which at least one sets of electrons are shared by two molecules. Ionic bond: bond in which at least one electrons from one iota are expelled and joined to another particle, bringing about positive and negative particles which draw in each other.Other sorts of bonds incorporate metallic securities and hydrogen holding. The appealing powers between particles in a fluid can be described as van der Waals bonds. What is an Ionic Bond? An ionic bond is a sort of synthetic bond framed through an electrostatic fascination between two oppositely charged particles. Ionic bonds are framed because of the fascination between a molecule that has lost at leas t one electron (known as a cation) and an iota that has increased at least one electrons (known as an anion). As a rule, the cation is a metal molecule and the anion is a non-metal atom.It is critical to perceive that unadulterated ionic holding in which one iota takes an electron from another can't exist: every ionic compound have some level of covalent holding, or electron sharing. In this manner, the term ionic bond is given to a bond in which the ionic character is more noteworthy than the covalent character that is, a bond wherein a huge electronegativity distinction exists between the two iotas, making the bond be progressively polar (ionic) than different types of covalent holding where electrons are shared all the more similarly. Bonds with in part ionic and mostly covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.Nevertheless, ionic holding is viewed as a type of no covalent holding. Ionic mixes lead power when liquid or in arrangement, however not as a strong. They by and large have a high liquefying point and will in general be solvent in water. Ionic Bonding is watched on the grounds that metals have scarcely any electrons in its external generally orbital. By losing those electrons, these metals can accomplish respectable gas design and fulfill the octet rule. Additionally, nonmetals that have near 8 electrons in its valence shell will in general promptly acknowledge electrons to accomplish its honorable gas configuration.In ionic bonding, beyond what 1 electron can be given or gotten to fulfill the octet rule. The charge on the anion and cation relates to the quantity of electrons gave or recieved. Inâ ionicâ bonds, the net charge of the compound must be zero. This sodium particle gives the solitary electron in its valence orbital so as to accomplish octet arrangement. This makes an emphatically charged cation because of the loss of electron. This Chlorine particle gets one electron to accomplish its octet design. This makes a contrari ly charged anion because of the expansion of one electron.The anticipated by and large vitality of theâ ionicâ bonding process, which incorporates the ionization vitality of the metal and electron fondness of the non-metal, is generally positive, showing that the response is endothermic and troublesome. However,â this response is exceptionally positive in view of their electrostatic fascination. At the best between nuclear separation, fascination between these particles discharges enough vitality to encourage the response. Mostâ ionicâ compounds will in general separate in polar solvents since they areâ often polar. This wonder is because of the contrary charges on each ions.Examples: In this model, the Sodiumâ molecule is giving its 1 valence electron to the Chlorine atom. This makes a Sodium cation and a Chlorine anion. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0. In this model, the Magnesium particle is giving both of its valence electrons to Chlorine atoms. Every Chlo rine particle can just acknowledge 1 electron before it can achieveâ its respectable gas arrangement; in this manner, 2 atoms of Chlorine is required to acknowledge the 2 electrons gave by the Magnesium. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0. StructureIonic mixes in the strong state structure cross section structures. The two chief factors in deciding the type of the cross section are the overall charges of the particles and their relative sizes. A few structures are received by various mixes; for instance, the structure of the stone salt sodium chloride is likewise embraced by numerous soluble base halides, and double oxides, for example, MgO. Bond Strength For a strong crystalline ionic aggravate the enthalpy change in shaping the strong from vaporous particles is named the grid vitality. The trial esteem for the grid vitality can be resolved utilizing the Born-Haber cycle.It can likewise be determined utilizing the Born-Lande condition as the total of the electrostatic potential vitality, determined by adding connections among cations and anions, and a short range horrible potential vitality term. The electrostatic potential can be communicated as far as the between ionic division and a steady (Madelung consistent) that assesses the geometry of the precious stone. The Born-Lande condition gives a sensible fit to the grid vitality of e. g. sodium chloride where the determined worth is ? 756 kJ/mol which looks at to ? 87 kJ/mol utilizing the Born-Haber cycle. Polarization Effects Ions in gem cross sections of absolutely ionic mixes are round; in any case, if the positive particle is little as well as exceptionally charged, it will mutilate the electron haze of the negative particle, an impact summed up in Fajans rules. This polarization of the negative particle prompts a development of additional charge thickness between the two cores, I. e. , to fractional covalency. Bigger negative particles are all the more handily energized, however the impact is typically just significant when positive particles with charges of 3+ (e. . , Al3+) are included. Be that as it may, 2+ particles (Be2+) or even 1+ (Li+) show some polarizing power in light of the fact that their sizes are so little (e. g. , LiI is ionic however has some covalent holding present). Note this isn't the ionic polarization impact which alludes to uprooting of particles in the cross section because of the utilization of an electric field. Examination with covalent bonds In an ionic bond, the iotas are limited by fascination of inverse particles, though, in a covalent bond, molecules are limited by sharing electrons to achieve stable electron configurations.In covalent holding, the sub-atomic geometry around every iota is controlled by Valence shell electron pair shock VSEPR rules, while, in ionic materials, the geometry keeps greatest pressing guidelines. Absolutely ionic bonds can't exist, as the vicinity of the elements associated with the bond permits some level of sharing electron thickness between them. Hence, all ionic bonds have some covalent character. In this way, an ionic bond is viewed as a bond where the ionic character is more noteworthy than the covalent character. The bigger the distinction in electronegativity between the two particles associated with the bond, the more ionic (polar) the bond is.Bonds with mostly ionic and halfway covalent character are called polar covalent bonds. For instance, Naâ€Cl and Mgâ€O bonds have a couple of percent covalency, while Siâ€O bonds are normally ~50% ionic and ~50% covalent. Electrical Conductivity Ionic mixes, whenever liquid or disintegrated, can lead power in light of the fact that the particles in these conditions are allowed to move and convey electrons between the anode and the cathode. In the strong structure, notwithstanding, they can't direct in light of the fact that the electrons are held together too firmly for them to move. Be that as it may, some ionic mixes can lead p ower when solid.This is because of relocation of the particles themselves affected by an electric field. These mixes are known as quick particle conductors. What is a Covalent Bond? Covalent holding is the sharing of electrons between iotas. This sort of holding happens between two of a similar component or components near one another in the occasional table. This holding happens essentially between non-metals; notwithstanding, it can likewise be seen between non-metals and metals also. At the point when particles have comparative electronegativity, same fondness for electrons, covalent bonds are destined to occur.Since the two iotas have a similar partiality for electrons nor is happy to give them away, they share electrons so as to accomplish octet setup and become progressively steady. Furthermore, the ionization vitality of the molecule is excessively enormous and the electron partiality of the particle is too little forâ ionic clinging to happen. For instance: Carbon doesnâ₠¬â„¢t formâ ionicâ bonds since it has 4 valence electrons, half of an octet. So as to formâ ionic bonds, Carbon atoms should either pick up or lose 4 electrons. This is profoundly negative; along these lines, Carbon particles share their 4 valence electrons through single, twofold, and triple onds with the goal that every molecule can accomplish honorable gas arrangements. Covalent bonds can incorporate associations of the sigma and pi orbitals; in this manner covalent securities lead to development of single, twofold, triple, and fourfold securities. Model: In this model, a Phosphorous particle is imparting its 3 unpaired electrons to 3 Chlorine molecules. At long last item, every one of the four of these particles have 8 valence electronsâ and fulfill the octet rule. A covalent bond is the synthetic bond that includes the sharing of electron combines between atoms.The stable parity of alluring and horrible powers between iotas when they share electrons is known as covalent hol ding. [1] For some particles, the sharing of electrons permits every iota to accomplish what could be compared to a full external shell, relating to a stable electronic design. Covalent holding incorporates numerous sorts of connections, including ? - holding, ? - holding, metal-to-metal holding, rationalist associations, and three-focus two-electron bonds. [2][3] The term covalent bond dates from 1939. [4] The prefix co-implies together, related in real life, joined forces to a lesser degree, and so on therefore a co-valent bond,

Managing Organization and Leading People

Question: Examine about the Managing Organization and Leading People. Answer: Presentation The paper delineates authoritative administration and the pretend of driving individuals, who are liable for the hierarchical achievement (Business Insider 2016). The achievement models of an association are constantly reliant on the conduct parts of the pioneers. In this paper, the chose pioneer is Larry Page, an incredible business person and the fellow benefactor of Google. The paper will exhibit the authority morals, administration advancement, the brain science of the pioneer and the multicultural idea of the pioneer from various research and investigation. Aside from this, in conclusion the paper will show the authority speculations. Choice of the pioneer For this paper the chose pioneer is the fellow benefactor of Google Inc. an extraordinary PC researcher and web business person Larry Page. He is the CEO of Alphabet Inc. which is the parent organization of Google. Larry needs his workers to have faith in basic reasoning and insane thought development (Business Insider 2016). The out of box thoughts help the association to get one of the top most association on the planet. So as to build up an agreeable change in the realm of innovation arrangement of imaginative thoughts and execution of those thoughts are required (Chen et al. 2015). So as to settle on quicker choices Larry requested that his workers include consistent productivity. Research and investigation of the initiative style Administration morals The administration of Larry Page is coordinated with his standards and outrageous faith in initiative morals (Isaacson 2012). He generally convictions on the privilege and respect of different representatives working for his association. The genuineness and dependability driven by Larry Page encourages the association to be one of the main organizations everywhere throughout the world. Administration advancement The administration practice is changing quickly after some time. Transformational and value-based hypotheses are the important points of view considered to get chronicled advancement the dynamic, viable correspondence and in heading arrangement for endeavors (Goetsch and Davis 2014). The authority of Larry Page got renaissance the association structure of Google. Authority brain research While managing authority brain research three qualities, for example, are inspiration, Fear and uneasiness and vulnerability are considered for viable accomplishment of administration. Larry Page convictions on this elements and he found a way to build up the structure of his association (Isaacson 2012). Also, he generally rouses his workers that helped them to maintain a strategic distance from hierarchical dangers. Multicultural authority This is alluded to as various societies has by one individual. The picked pioneer, Larry page created multicultural administration the board inside his association (Terry 2015). Larry Page is known as multicultural pioneer since he has worldwide degree of reasoning, social interest, fearless, information, persistence, consideration and overseeing assorted variety. Hypotheses of administration From the hierarchical point of view 5 initiative speculations are discovered (Goodall, McDowell and Singell 2014). From the general examination it has been discovered that, Larry Page has Great man hypothesis, social hypothesis, characteristic hypothesis, conduct hypothesis and possibility hypothesis also. These are as per the following: Extraordinary man hypothesis: Leadership hypothesis characterizes the incredible or interesting characteristics that acquire by one individual from his introduction to the world it implies that one can't pick up uniqueness from the outside world or experience (Hamel and Breen 2013.). Larry page is a predetermined or inalienable incredible individual that is enlivened by the investigation of compelling legend. However, Larry needed to substantiate himself by executing distinctive developing advancements yet at the same time, his ability isn't synthetic rather he is an inalienable gifted individual. Conduct hypothesis: This is alluded to as the response of the attribute initiative hypothesis. This hypothesis offers new viewpoints to the association regarding social, physiological and mental qualities of an individual (Giacalone and Rosenfeld 2013). As per social hypothesis, pioneers are made and not conceived. It has been characterized that, Larry Page, is an extraordinary pioneer as he has imaginative psyche and he generally inspires his representatives to think fundamentally. The pioneers has diverse name however the embodiment of the pioneers are indistinguishable or comparative for all. Possibility hypothesis: This is alluded to as the workplace of Google. The administration style of the pioneers and the representatives of the association are diverse dependent on the working circumstance (Goetsch and Davis 2014). The initiative style can't be same for various pioneers. This is named as an expansion of characteristic hypothesis (Goodall et al. 2014). The pioneers working for the Characteristic hypothesis: This hypothesis comprises of certain one of a kind characters rather qualities that can separate one pioneer from a non pioneer (Landis, Hill and Harvey 2014). Specialized, calculated and human abilities are scientific and prescient enough. Larry Page has these uncommon characters that think about character, social and physical characteristics to separate pioneers from the non pioneers (Business Insider 2016). Characteristic hypothesis is an augmentation of incredible man hypothesis which spurs all the representatives working for the association. Components that go under thought are accomplishment, professional stability, control over others and high budgetary prize. Situational hypothesis: In request to characterize key situational factors three possibility measurements, for example, pioneer part connection, task structure, are plainly recognized. Undertaking structure is the level of employment task that is method (Isaacson 2012). This as well as, the level of impact and inspiration inside the workforce is additionally straightforwardly subject to the conduct of the larder. End From the general conversation it has been inferred that for the development of Google Larry attempts to include the best advances to evade the totalitarian methods of driving. These are the significant reasons which helped the association to turn into the main one. These achievement models of the individual helped him to be one of the main business visionaries. The administration hypotheses and initiative characters has by Larry Page are referenced in this paper. References Business Insider., 2016.The terrific existence of Google author and Alphabet CEO Larry Page. [online] Available at: https://www.businessinsider.in/The-marvelous existence of-Google-author and-Alphabet-CEO-Larry-Page/articleshow/51458622.cms [Accessed 1 Sep. 2016]. Chen, X.P., Eberly, M.B., Chiang, T.J., Farh, J.L. what's more, Cheng, B.S., 2014. Full of feeling trust in Chinese pioneers connecting paternalistic initiative to representative performance.Journal of Management,40(3), pp.796-819. Floyd, L.A., Xu, F., Atkins, R. what's more, Caldwell, C., 2013. Moral results and business morals: Toward improving business morals education.Journal of business ethics,117(4), pp.753-776. Giacalone, R.A. what's more, Rosenfeld, P., 2013.Impression administration in the association. Brain science Press. Goetsch, D.L. what's more, Davis, S.B., 2014.Quality administration for hierarchical greatness. pearson. Goodall, A.H., McDowell, J.M. furthermore, Singell, L.D., 2014. Administration and the examination efficiency of college offices. Hamel, G. furthermore, Breen, B., 2013.The eventual fate of the board. Harvard Business Press. Isaacson, W., 2012. The genuine initiative exercises of Steve Jobs.Harvard business review,90(4), pp.92-102. Landis, E.A., Hill, D. furthermore, Harvey, M.R., 2014. A blend of administration hypotheses and styles.Journal of Management Policy and Practice,15(2), p.97. Terry, L.D., 2015.Leadership of open organizations: The chairman as conservator. Routledge.

John Lockes philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

John Lockes theory - Essay Example The relocation of the Englishmen into the New World made it workable for them to present the ways of thinking of John Locke into America and the degree at which Locke’s theory impacted the philosophies behind the American Revolution will be analyzed in this short paper. John Locke’s reasoning was principally founded on the sway of the individuals and the obligation of the person in the general public. It depended on this guideline, that the Americans esteemed it fit to shield their sway as a country and stage an unrest. Locke’s theory depended on maintaining the privilege of the person as his reason depended on the way that sway lies in the hands of the people as opposed to the state and it was on this premise the residents of America battled for what was legitimately theirs. Locke accepted that each individual reserved the privilege to begin an upheaval on the off chance that they believe they are been mistreated by their pioneers. The Americans utilized Lockeâ €™s standard in the abuse that they looked on account of their British frontier aces (Axtell 98). John Locke’s thoughts were additionally the bedrock of Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence. J

How Behavioral Therapy Is Used in Psychology

How Behavioral Therapy Is Used in Psychology Theories Behavioral Psychology Print How Behavioral Therapy Is Used in Psychology By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on December 15, 2015 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on July 15, 2019 vgajic / E / Getty Images More in Theories Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Personality Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology In This Article Table of Contents Expand History Behavioral Therapy Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning View All Back To Top In behavioral therapy, the goal is to reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate unwanted or maladaptive ones. Behavioral therapy is rooted in the principles of behaviorism, a school of thought focused on the idea that we learn from our environment. The techniques used in this type of treatment are based on the theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. One important thing to note about the various behavioral therapies is that unlike some other types of therapy that are rooted in insight (such as psychoanalytic and humanistic therapies), behavioral therapy is action-based. Behavioral therapists are focused on using the same learning strategies that led to the formation of unwanted behaviors. Because of this, behavioral therapy tends to be highly focused. The behavior itself is the problem and the goal is to teach clients new behaviors to minimize or eliminate the issue. Old learning led to the development of a problem and so the idea is that new learning can fix it. There are also three major areas that also draw on the strategies of behavioral therapy: Cognitive-behavioral therapy relies on behavioral techniques but adds a cognitive element, focusing on the problematic thoughts that lie behind behaviors.Applied behavior analysis utilizes operant conditioning to shape and modify problematic behaviors.Social learning theory centers on how people learn through observation. Observing others being rewarded or punished for their actions can lead to learning and behavior change. A Brief Background Edward Thorndike was one of the first to refer to the idea of modifying behavior. Other early pioneers of behavior therapy included psychologists Joseph Wolpe and Hans Eysenck. Behaviorist B.F. Skinners work had a major influence on the development of behavior therapy and his work introduced many of the concepts and techniques that are still in use today. Later on, psychologists such as Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis began adding a cognitive element to behavioral strategies to form a treatment approach known as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). The Foundation of Behavioral Therapy In order to understand how behavioral therapy works, lets start by exploring the two basic principles that contribute to behavioral therapy: classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli. Previously neutral stimuli are paired with a stimulus that naturally and automatically evokes a response. After repeated pairings, an association is formed and the previously neutral stimulus will come to evoke the response on its own. Operant conditioning focuses on how reinforcement and punishment can be utilized to either increase or decrease the frequency of a behavior. Behaviors followed by desirable consequences are more likely to occur again in the future, while those followed by negative consequences become less likely to occur. Behavior Therapy Based on Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is one way to alter behavior, and a number of techniques exist that can produce such change. Originally known as behavior modification, this type of therapy is often referred to today as applied behavior analysis. Some of the techniques and strategies used in this approach to therapy include: Flooding This process involves exposing people to fear-invoking objects or situations intensely and rapidly. It is often used to treat phobias, anxiety and other stress-related disorders. During the process, the individual is prevented from escaping or avoiding the situation. For example, flooding might be used to help a client who is suffering from an intense fear of dogs. At first, the client might be exposed to a small friendly dog for an extended period of time during which he or she cannot leave. After repeated exposures to the dog during which nothing bad happens, the fear response begins to fade. Systematic Desensitization This technique involves having a client make a list of fears and then teaching the individual to relax while concentrating on these fears. The use of this process began with psychologist John B. Watson and his famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a young child to fear a white rat. Later, Mary Cover Jones replicated Watsons results and utilized counterconditioning techniques to desensitize and eliminate the fear response. Systematic desensitization is often used to treat phobias. The process follows three basic steps. First, the client is taught relaxation techniques.Next, the individual creates a ranked list of fear-invoking situations.Starting with the least fear-inducing item and working their way up to the most fear-inducing item, the client confronts these fears under the guidance of the therapist while maintaining a relaxed state. For example, an individual with a fear of the dark might start by looking at an image of a dark room before moving on to thinking about being in a dark room and then actually confronting his fear by sitting in a dark room. By pairing the old fear-producing stimulus with the newly learned relaxation behavior, the phobic response can be reduced or even eliminated. Aversion Therapy This process involves pairing an undesirable behavior with an aversive stimulus in the hope that the unwanted behavior will eventually be reduced. For example, someone suffering from alcoholism might utilize a drug known as disulfiram, which causes severe symptoms such as headaches, nausea, anxiety, and vomiting when combined with alcohol. Because the person becomes extremely ill when they drink, the drinking behavior may be eliminated. How Aversion Therapy Works to Fix Unwanted Behaviors Behavior Therapy Based on Operant Conditioning Many behavior techniques rely on the principles of operant conditioning, which means that they utilize reinforcement, punishment, shaping, modeling and related techniques to alter behavior. These methods have the benefit of being highly focused, which means that they can produce fast and effective results. Some of the techniques and strategies used in this approach to behavioral therapy include: Token Economies This type of behavioral strategy relies on reinforcement to modify behavior. Clients are allowed to earn tokens that can be exchanged for special privileges or desired items. Parents and teachers often use token economies to reinforce good behavior. Kids earn tokens for engaging in preferred behaviors and may even lose tokens for displaying undesirable behaviors. These tokens can then be traded for things such as candy, toys, or extra time playing with a favorite toy. Contingency Management This approach utilizes a formal written contract between the client and the therapist that outlines the behavior change goals, reinforcements, and rewards that will be given and the penalties for failing to meet the demands of the agreement. These types of agreements arent just used by therapistsâ€"teachers and parents also often use them with students and children in the form of behavior contracts. Contingency contracts can be very effective in producing behavior changes since the rules are spelled out clearly in black-and-white, preventing both parties from backing down on their promises. Modeling This technique involves learning through observation and modeling the behavior of others. The process is based on Albert Banduras social learning theory, which emphasizes the social components of the learning process. Rather than relying simply on reinforcement or punishment, modeling allows individuals to learn new skills or acceptable behaviors by watching someone else perform those desired skills. In some cases, the therapist might model the desired behavior. In other instances, watching peers engage in sought-after behaviors can also be helpful. Extinction Another way to produce behavior change is to stop reinforcing a behavior in order to eliminate the response. Time-outs are a perfect example of the extinction process. During a time-out, a person is removed from a situation that provides reinforcement. For example, a child who starts yelling or striking other children would be removed from the play activity and required to sit quietly in a corner or another room where there are no opportunities for attention and reinforcement. By taking away the attention that the child found rewarding, the unwanted behavior is eventually extinguished. How Extinction Is Defined in Psychology A Word From Verywell When it comes to treating specific behavioral issues, behavioral therapy can sometimes be more effective than other approaches. Phobias, panic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder are examples of problems that respond well to behavioral treatments. However, it is important to note that behavioral approaches are not always the best solution. For example, behavioral therapy is generally not the best approach when treating certain serious psychiatric disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. Behavioral therapy might be effective at helping clients manage or cope with certain aspects of these psychiatric conditions, but should be used in conjunction with other medical and therapeutic treatments recommended by a medical doctor, psychologist or psychiatrist. The Best Online Therapy Services

Human resources departments - Free Essay Example

Highly motivated staff within the organisation are often associated with the success of the overall performance of the company (Baruch, 1997; Tsui, 1987). Traditionally, the responsibility of motivation lay with an employee (self-motivation). More recently, as companies started to develop their Human Resources departments, the responsibility boundary started to shift across to the centralised functions. Motivational techniques, such as the provision of training, career guidance and performance appraisals were all offered to employees by HR deparments (Kulik et al, 2008). However, over the last 20 years, the HR function has received a large amount of negative publicity, primarily being accused of playing a complicit role in corporate excesses (e.g. extravagant executive compensation packages) and corporate ethics scandals (Kulik et al, 2008, p). Large amount of empirical evidence and reflective academic analyses shows that the HR function not only does not have the trust of its stakeholders (e.g. employees, line managers) but also has developed a strong reputation of an inability to provide adequate HR support, which in turn leads to demotivation within organisations (Kochan, 2004; Peterson, 2004; Rynes, 2004; Graham et al, 2006; Lansbury et al, 2004; Ulrich, 1997). ( direct citation need number of page(s)) The need for change was most strongly pointed out by Schuler (1990) who sa id HR must transform or die (cited by Kulik et al, 2008 p.). Some of the necessary changes came naturally over the years. One of them will be examined in this work: the devolution of HR functions to Line Managers. In this devolution, the Line Managers take on certain parts of traditional HR functions themselves (Cunningham et al, 1999; Currie et al, 2001; Larsen et al, 2003; Renwick, 2003). Advocates of a devolution strategy suggest that it can save costs, speed up decision making and link HR activities with other aspects of day-to-day management (Larsen Brewster, 2003; Renwick, 2003), benefiting the organisation as a whole (Kulik et al, 2008, p). There is relatively little empirical work aimed at increasing the understanding of the devolution of HRM to LM (Maxwell and Watson 2004; Kulik et al, 2008). Few previous studies, for example, have looked at devolution from a Line Managers point of view; previous studies have concentrated largely upon the effect on the HR function (McCon ville 2006). The present study will look at the effects the devolution of the HR functions to the Line Mangers has on staff motivation. The literature review will look at the theoretical work that assesses motivation and the functions of both HR and Line managers. Through primary research, a number of LMs and their staff will be surveyed in order to assess if the devolution took place and to what extent the devolution of HR function happened. It will try to establish the relationship between the perceived efficiency of the manager in performing some of the HR functions, focusing on the various soft skills involved, and the employee motivation. The study will also take into account the degree to which the HR supports the Line Manager where there is devolution of functions. The study will be set in the context of recent theorising about the devolution of HR, looking both at the new strategic role of HR and also at the way in which this impacts upon the LM role as more HR functions are included in that role. The role of partnership working, defined and described in more detail later on, is an influential approach to devolution, which is promoted by Ulrich (1998) and other writers, and a partnership approach that means collaborative working of LM, HR and staff in order to reach common organisational goals will be considered as a particularly fruitful one on all levels throughout the organisation. Research Area and Aims The aim of the research is to examine the effect that a devolution of a Human Resources Function to Line Management had on staffs motivation in the context of Saudi Arabia. In order to achieve this aim, it is important to examine the available academic literature on the subject of this devolution and conduct primary research to identify whether the results support the existing theories. Previous studies have concentrated on the new role of strategic HR and the role played by devolution within it, however in the following literature revie w the concern will be with identifying current thoughts about the impact of this devolution upon the level of motivation among the staff. It will be seen that devolution has both negative and positive effects (Whittaker and Marchington 2003). Although evidence exists that this kind of devolution can increase productivity and motivation of the employees (Baron 2003), the literature review will also examine the lack of adequate training provided to the LMs to provide this function and question whether this approach will work in the long-run (from a motivational point of view). This aim of the research can be broken down further into research questions: What are the reasons for devolution? Is it likely to positively affect the motivation of the employees? How has devolution of HR functions to Line Management affected the questioned employees motivation in selected Saudi Arabian companies? The above questions, aims and objectives lead to the creation of the framework of the literature review. The formulation of a series of interrelated hypotheses to be investigated by the research study is the next step that will be carried out as soon as the framework is defined in the literature review. Research structure The structure of this research project is constructed around the research questions and includes several chapters. Firstly, the introduction defines the scope of the research and the research problem. Secondly, the literature review presents the theoretical discussion of the main variables and introduces the existing opinions of the scholars upon their relationship. The third part outlines the methodology that will be followed in order to collect and analyse research data. The following part will represent the analysis of the research findings. After the research findings are presented the conclusions will be made and the recommendations for managers will be stated. Chapter 2: Literature Review What is motivation? Motivation as a subject is of interest to a large number of fields. Managers from every industry use motivational techniques in order to develop their workers, psychologists study the behavioral pattern of those subject to motivation, economists analyse how motivation effects the economy and individuals study self-help books in order to gain higher motivation. ( reference ) The main reason why so many industries study motivation and apply the techniques is because motivation is often associated with success (Baron 2003). This chapter will look at the empirical evidence and theories of how high levels of motivation lead to an increase in productivity, employee commitment, efficient running of the company, correct resource integration and further managerial development. All of the above improve the bottom line of the companies and therefore, it can be argued that high levels of motivation among the staff is the key ingredient to profitability. Abraham Mas low is often considered as the father of motivational theories. His work, A Theory of Human Motivation (1943), outlined a hierarchy of human needs that trigger different levels of motivation. He argued, that human kind require their needs to be satisfied in a hierarchical order. By understand the hierarchy one could determine how to motivate an individual. Each of the levels has to be done in turn, therefore, the first priority is always to satisfy the basic Physiological needs such as the provision of food, water, shelter and sleep. The next level would be to provide for the security needs, such as life threat preventions, or avoidance of different fears. Social needs level deals with the acceptance that is required by individuals, esteem needs will be required to be fulfilled (e.g. self-respect; power, prestige). The last level is self-actualisation, where an individual focuses on personal growth, self-fulfillment and achieving their potential (Maslow, 1943 cite by Swinton, 2009). Later on, Atkinson (1964) identified that motivation was a combination of two ingredients: motives and expectancies. Motives are dispositions to approach or avoid certain behaviors; they are thought to be developed in childhood and to remain fairly stable across life (Atkinson, 1964: 242). Needs for challenge, power and affiliation are examples of basic motives. Expectancies, which are more ephemeral, consist of an individuals assessment that his or her own actions will lead to the successful attainment of a desired outcome (Dunifon et al, 1998, p. 34). Expectancies can be either specific (a personal belief that one can do the job, which will lead to a promotion) or general (a belief that hard work leads to promotion). Atkinsons theory (1964) also takes into account a personal investment that individuals are willing to make in order to achieve the expected results. For example, if a certain result will require training then an individual may be interested in investing their time (and potentially money) if the expected return is high enough. ( have you used the original source for Atkinson 1964, or just cited by Dunifon ?) The subject of motivation is fascinating not only because it can potentially lead to success, but also because there is still no agreement on how to provoke it. For example, White (1959) argued that the level of motivation can be traced back to the childhood of each individual and that would explain the individual motivation a lot better than the studies of behaviorism and psychoanalysis (White, 1959 cited by MacTurk et al, p.2). Herrnstein and Murray (1995) identified The Bell Curve, which deals with the success of individuals at work, and relates it to the natural intelligence of each individual. The research by Murnane and Levy (1996, cited by Dunifon et al, 1998) concluded that each individual possesses new basic skills (such as the level of understanding of certain subjects such as mathematics, reading, writing) and soft skills su ch as team work, negotiation skills; and the level of those skills would determine the success of each individual. Bandura (1986), Brandstatter and Gollwitzer (1994, cited by Dunifon et al, 1998) argued that motivation is the key factor that determines whether or not an individual will achieve something. It is also important to outline that the understanding of success is very individual. Using Maslows (1943) theory, it can be seen that money is not the only measure of success. Although money, as a means of payment, can satisfy the first two hierarchical levels (Physiological and Safety), it may help (but not guarantee) the next three hierarchical levels, namely social, esteem and self-actualisation needs. Therefore, it can be argued, that once an individual has satisfied the first two levels of motivation; they will require an additional means of satisfaction in order to stay motivated. Empirical evidence of motivational measures Inspired by motivational theories, governme nts as well as private companies have been trying to assess motivation. Data has been collected in order for academics to study the effects of motivation in a more scientific way. For example there is the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) and the National Longitudinal Survey (NLS) panels that measure peoples motivational and economic statuses as well as their achievements over the years (Dunifon et al, 1998, p.33). Using those statistics many have tried to predict the success of individuals based on the original inputs. However, results have been mixed. For example, Andrisani (1978) found that although correlations existed between fixed variables such as sex, race and economic status and eventual wages; the correlation could not be applied over different age groups. Similar non-conclusive results were found by Duncan and Morgan (1981) when they applied Andrisanis tests to PSID data. Goldsmith, Veum and Darity (1997, cited by Dunifon et al, 1998) used NLSY data to assess motivati on. Although they found that rising earnings had a strong significant correlation with the level of self-esteem, they could not show that personal control (i.e. motivation) had an effect on success. Koppels (1981, cited by Dunifon et al, 1998) work, using NLS data, showed that attitudes do have an effect on earnings, however, his findings did not outline how long those results would last for. The results were also inconclusive for Hill et al (1985), who tried to find a link between motivation and earnings through the use of additional variables such as economic conditions. However, when training was taken into consideration, the results were a lot more conclusive and predictable. For example, Earley (1994, cited by Dunifon et al, 1998) showed that there is a very strong and positive correlation between the training that employees receive, their motivation and performance at work. Similarly, by using PSID data, Dunifon et al (1998) found that there is a significant correlation between an individuals preference for a challenge and their earnings, if training is provided. A study conducted by Kulik et al (2008) found that devolution of the HR function to a LM had a significant positive effect on how the staff viewed HR departments post devolution. The above positive results indicate that devolution may increase the motivation among the employees of the company and hence should be considered seriously by organisations. What motivates people? As has been outlined above, the factors that trigger motivation are complex and the list of them is lengthy. Adams Equity Theory (1963) is one of the most used theories when motivational techniques are being identified. Adams theory states that there should be a balance between the inputs that each worker is prepared to put forward (e.g. working hours, effort, loyalty) and the outputs that are being received (wages, success, satisfaction). Unlike other theories, The Equity Theory also takes into consideration the r eferents. Referents are external factors that affect the inputs and outputs of people, for example the external economic environment or competition. Therefore, each person, when assessing the balance of their input-output ratio, will take into consideration their surroundings. For example, the level of salary will be compared to the other employees in the company; the working conditions may be evaluated relative to other companies in the market and the job satisfaction may be assessed relative to the economic conditions at the time (Adam, 1963). More recent papers (e.g. Steers and Porters, 1991) also identified that individuals motivations can be split into two broad categories: extrinsic (e.g. money) and intrinsic (e.g. personal development). As long as the expectations of both are met within an organisation, the employee is likely to stay within the company and be motivated. Hall (1994) developed the Equity Theorys point on the external factors that influence employees and adde d that socialisation is also an influential variable in the complex equation of motivation. For the purpose of future evaluation, it is important to summarise the possible inputs that the employee can provide to a company: Effort Loyalty Hard work Commitment Skill Ability Adaptability Flexibility Tolerance Determination Enthusiasm Trust in superiors Support of colleagues Personal sacrifices All of the above inputs can potentially lead to higher profitability of the company. If each employee puts more effort into each piece of work, stays behind to produce more and improves the efficiency, the company is likely to utilise that and offer the employee the outputs that they demand (e.g. wages, commission, bonuses, training, travel) as long as the company is able to make a profit. (Reference?) In summary, correct motivation has a positive effect on the profitability and success of the company, therefore it is essential for organisations to put forward sufficient resources in order to maximise motivation among the employees. However, as will be discussed in detail in the next chapter, in order to achieve the desired employee motivation, the correct resources must be employed. Who is more suitable to handle this responsibility: HR or Line Managers? Human Resources roles and functions before devolution HR is a relatively new approach to the management of people withi n the organisation. HR first emerged as a distinct organisational area in the United States from the mid 20th Century onwards. Within the United Kingdom, HR first appeared from the 1980s (Sutherland and Canwell, 2006). Like any new discipline and many older ones there is much debate about what it covers and the essentials of its nature. Ever since it arrived in the UK there has been discussion of whether aspects of its function should be devolved, and, if so, which and to whom (Brandl et al 2009). Various attempts have been made to model HR either within a historical perspective or in terms of functions and approaches. A historical view, for example, traces the development over the years from an early (1960s) focus upon routine and administration (the clerk of works approach). In this model, the 70s saw an emphasis upon the contracts manager function and HR being based upon the notion of industrial relations, while the 80s saw the HR professional as an architect focusing upon m anagement and planning as well as day-to-day administration. (Tyson and Fell, 1992). Other models look at the different types of function found within the area of HR which may co-exist at any one time; Storey (1992) for example classified four different co-existing types of Personnel function, distinguishing between roles as advisers (internal consultants) handmaidens (reactive, at the service of other managers) regulators (monitoring and establishing rules) and changemakers (who boost employee commitment). Each approach, or a combination of approaches, can characterise different organisations at different times (Storey 1992). Another way to approach the description of HR is to characterise it into the various functions performed by a typical department. This can involve a separation between the following; first, the design of organisations, including such aspects as job content and definitions; second a concern with organisational staffing (recruitment, staff testing and monitoring , careers and training and so on) (Sutherland 2007); and third, performance and reward (job appraisals, remuneration, employee benefits and the like) (Beer et al 1984). Gibb describes HR as people management in the widest sense, including within it employee resources, relationships, reward and also learning and development (also referred to as LD) (Gibb 2003). It is obvious from even a brief look at Human Resources that it is a relatively new discipline, and one that has never emerged from a state of flux into a fixed structure in order to obtain independent status within the organisation as a whole. While HR has thus embraced a wide range of different roles and been theorised in a number of ways, a core part of the function has consistently been administrative functions that were often seen by line managers as complications to the day-to-day activities. Not only have carrying out day-to-day administrative tasks been a central part of HR, it has also tended in the past to a react ive approach responding to problems as they occur rather than becoming involved in a more proactive setting of strategies (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). This focus on administration, together with the characteristic fluidity and relative newness of the discipline, may be partly responsible for the extent to which HR is seen as a function part which can be devolved to other departments (Cunningham and Hyman 1999). Devolution: a necessary change In order to be able to discuss how the devolution of HR functions to LMs affects the motivation of staff, it is important to understand how and why the devolution happens and what are the arising conflicts from carrying out this devolution. Research suggests that the involvement of LMs in some HR decisions does have a favourable effect on the achievements of the organisation as a whole as well as allowing the instantiation of a corporate vision and strategy with a beneficial effect upon performance (MacNeil 2003) and upon empl oyee motivation (Baron 2003). There is further evidence to show that nowadays more than a half of larger organisations have moved towards the devolved model with a reduction in the size of HR departments and a change in HR function, as well as an increase in LM responsibility (Brown and Purcell 2007). From the 1980s onwards, even as HR was establishing itself as a discipline in its own right there was a pressure for the devolution of some of the responsibilities from HR to Line management (Gennard and Kelly, 1997). As it will be shown below, some of that pressure was due to a natural devolution of HR responsibilities; part of it was due to the need to cut costs, while the rest of the pressure came from technological developments and the need for quicker decision-making processes. There is some disagreement about the ways in which such change started; Storey (1992) suggesting that this devolution was a function of the overall instability of organisations during the 90s when a p eriod of unprecedented change led to many corporate change initiatives being communicated to employees by Line Managers, who thus took on a HR role (perhaps with little acknowledgement either by themselves or from higher management that was what they were doing) (Brandl et al 2009). In other words, Brandl et al (2009) described devolution as a process of transferring some of the HR responsibilities to the line managers. This can be seen both as a move forward, since the line managers always had some sort of HR responsibilities in terms of encouraging teamwork for example (Gibb 2003, MacNeil 2002), however, the new HR functions would include more HR-specific responsibilities such as carrying out performance appraisal, planning the training and development with the employees for their personal growth and career development and more. In addition to this stealth approach, a range of other possible drivers for the change in HR function have been suggested. The main one is cost. Compan ies are always aware of the financial implications of the way they do business, and including some simpler HR responsibilities in Line Management duties can reduce costs (Papelexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). Moreover, a trend towards cost-centre management has led to a need to integrate LM with HR on a day-to-day basis (Larsen and Brewster 2003), meaning that the HR functions performed by LM became part of the daily routine changes to the market place also underpin the devolution of HR functions. The UK, USA and Europe-wide market has seen vast changes including privatisation of the public sector, increases in unemployment and growth of competition. Organisations increasingly face the demand to enhance their strategic edge, which means HR must function more efficiently rather than being inundated by repetitive administration (Cunningham and Hyman 1999, Maxwell and Watson 2003). Moreover, an increase in awareness of the market place has gone hand-in-hand with an increasing awar eness of the importance of customers and service supply, which has led to a consequent increase in awareness of the importance of people skills across organisations as a whole (Larsen and Brewer 2003). This increasing emphasis upon market conditions and influence upon HR and LM is reinforced by Keenoy (1990). The changes in the market therefore stimulated the devolution of HR functions to LM, which is seen by the businesses to be more cost-effective while at the same time providing a variety of benefits to the company as described further under the heading of advantages of the devolution. Other drivers include technological changes within HR. Advances in computing and IT mean procedures can be simplified and speeded up and hence line management can take over some of HRs functions (Malmqvist 2008). An increase in organisation change (restructuring, mergers and similar) since the 90s means also that HR needs to become more sophisticated and to devolve simpler functions to the line as there is an increasing need for HR to concentrate upon overseeing complex change initiatives (reference). Moreover, most jobs nowadays are changing in nature. Not only are more complex functions demanded of even the lowest level employee, workers change organisations with increasing frequency rather than having a job for life. Consequently, HR skills such as leadership and communication need to be integrated into all management positions rather than remain the function of one department (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). This increased job complexity goes together with an increase in the managers role of a leader, motivating and appraising his or her team members (Larsen and Brewer 2003). Therefore, increasingly, the managers have to perform the responsibilities of HR that are now embedded in their own roles, such as motivating, leading, communicating, appraising. The ability to perform these tasks allows the manager to be more effective in achieving the set goals through i ncreased motivation and improved performance of the employees (Purcell and Hutchinson 2007). A further reason is speed. With devolution, decisions can be made quickly and on the spot by Line Managers rather than having to refer even the simplest personnel matter to HR (Papelexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). Although motivation is not stated as a separate reason for the necessary change, it can be argued that it is assumed. One of the key benefits of devolution is that Line Managers are a lot closer to their employees than the HR department. The Line Managers have the opportunity to observe employees on a daily basis, guide them proactively and discuss an employees performance informatively. In turn, a closer relationship with a manager who is fully aware of the situation allows employees to be more motivated, due to the attention provided and an understanding of their needs. Despite HR departments being more qualified to discuss work-related issues with the employees, they ar e less likely to have the full understanding of peoples performance issues and be able to provide accurate guidance. The new proposed HR role The previous part has emphasized the need for the line managerial role to include some of the HR responsibilities. Therefore, the day-to-day operational HR tasks (recruitment, appraisal, pay, health and safety, training and development and discipline (MacNeil 2003, p. 295)) should be carried out by the people who actually deal with and supervise staff on a daily basis that is, Line Managers (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). Since the 90s there has been a realisation that the HR function can integrate with and improve operations of other parts of the business (Renwick 2003, Gibb 2003). It has been realised that integrating these areas of operation can help the organisation as a whole gain advantage in the marketplace and improve productivity (Kulik and Perry 2008). These recent changes in the marketplace have led to a change in fu nction of HR with the traditional administrative part of the HR process being passed to Line Managers (Kulik and Perry 2008, Maxwell and Watson 2004). This devolution of administrative tasks has been accompanied by a move to reinvent HR as a strategic department (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). Strategy decisions are handled by HR specialists, perhaps in conjunction with senior management (MacNeil 2003). The strategic approach to the HR role has many advocates. For instance, Ulrich (1997) is often cited as an influence in the devolved model of HR (Brown and Purcell 2007). Ulrich (1997) has proposed a new model for HR and HR Management (HRM), which has a four-fold structure. According to Ulrich (1997), first, HR should work as a partner with senior executives; the input of HR staff needs to inform decisions made at board level regarding the HR approach of the organisation as a whole. Their role is that of an architect, making the overall vision into a plan that can be carr ied out in practice. Second, HR should oversee administrative organisation and execution, ensuring that it is as efficient and cost-effective as it can be. Third, HR should be a champion for employees, acting to distil their many opinions into a coherent whole and presenting to Senior Management. Finally, HR should become an agent of continuous transformation, enhancing the organisations change capacity (Ulrich 1998). There is some debate over the question regarding whether Ulrich oversubscribes functions to HR and thus plays down the enhanced role of Line Managers in this model; however it is an exceptionally useful way of looking at the nature of strategic HR as a whole. The development of strategic HR is not without its problems. The complex process of devolution can lead to the uncovering of some contradictions in overall organisational policy which may have been previously masked by the way HR functioned (Whittaker and Marchington 2003). There also seems to be some confusion regarding the practical working of the new role of the Line Manager, and the relationship between HR and LM (MacNeil 2003). The issues regarding the new role of LM will be considered in greater depth below. The new proposed Line Management Role The following section will look at the new proposed role adopted by Line Management. The nature of what is now expected of Line Managers will be considered together with the advantages and disadvantages of this new role. Special attention will be paid to things which need to be changed in order for the HR function to be effectively integrated with that of LM. Since the role of Line Management is changing with the addition of new HR responsibilities through devolution (McConville, 2006), this part will look at the new functions of the Line Management that would have effect upon employee motivation in organisations. Research indicates that line managers play an increasingly important role in making the difference between a successful company and a mediocre one, specifically by implementing HR policies in a satisfactory way (Brown and Purcell 2007). Line managers traditionally have various functions which include setting objectives, organisation and administration as well as measurement, but also take on a range of people-focused tasks including motivation and communication. There is some evidence that line managers have failed in the past to acknowledge the people development and management part of their task (Renwick 2000). One feature of the Line Managers role is that they are an interface between management levels above themselves and the employees they manage directly. This gives them a unique and specialised knowledge of day-to-day relations with employees and hence an insight into some functions previously assumed to be the province of HR (MacNeil 2003). The move towards devolution then simply highlights the importance of these people skills in order to boost their integration into the LM role. What doe s the new role involve in practice? There are various components. It can be seen first as incorporating Learning and Development (LD) issues: helping others learn and progress. This is a wide area and includes training (induction, on-going training), performance management (making sure targets are met, offering rewards as appropriate, intervention when employee performance falls as well as the development and application of appraisal systems), leadership (team building and transition to team working, mentoring) as well as assessment and knowledge management (Gibb 2003). Perhaps the best way to characterise the new role is by the increased emphasis upon people skills. This can be seen as a shift away from integrating the principles of classic Fayol or Taylorian ( year) style management with its emphasis upon rigid systems, bureaucracy and lack of development of the individual to one which integrates the awareness, growing since the 1950s, of the role people can play in an organisatio n. There is a shift from codified, structured knowledge to an acknowledgement of tacit knowledge and hence a shift from the us and them power balance towards one which allows for a greater sense of teamwork and shared responsibility (MacNeil 2003). The Line Managers being able to motivate their direct employees through effective leadership and communication is especially important (Baron 2003). A Line Manager therefore has to take on the role of facilitator and communicator as much as boss or decision maker. His or her communication skills need to be developed, including an awareness of how negative and positive atmospheres can be communicated. In order that knowledge be fully shareable throughout the team the Line Manager must create an atmosphere of mutual trust in which individuals are happy to communicate (MacNeil 2003). The ability of a Line Manager to act as communicator and facilitator can be helped or hindered by the organisational climate as a whole; there is a need for back-up from senior management and HR (MacNeil 2003). While there is clearly an increase in administrative tasks, and a change in the type of administration and paperwork to include personnel records and career development mapping, the line managers new role is not simply that of taking on board new tasks and responsibilities but one of getting involved with people getting every manager involved in peoples issues is the key to organisational success (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005 p.). The LM role opens up to allow him or her to connect with employees. As people skills have always been part of the LM job, it is more an expansion of current capabilities than a new departure (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). A new proposed Line Managers Role: advantages and disadvantages The new role of the Line Manager includes many new functions and responsibilities and therefore putting a Line Manager in charge of those functions has its advantages and disadvantages. From the point of HR, Line Management involvement can allow the HR specialist to concentrate on a strategic approach. Overall, responses to HR challenges can be more immediate if handled by LM and can be more specific to location (Whittaker and Marchington 2003, Brandl et al 2009). HR will also benefit from the increased satisfaction from employees as it will allow them to build strategically upon day-to-day improvements (Gibb 2003). If LM take on HR responsibilities for LD, more people will be able to tap into career and personal development as LM are better placed to assess their training needs and, having a closer bond with them, will have more commitment to their lifelong learning. Lifelong Learning needs to be an integrated feature of working life, and the closer relationship between HR and LM can promote this. Traditionally, learning has involved a classroom situation and been organised by HR; the new approach also allows for on the job learning, training and development (Gibb 2003 ). As the empirical evidence showed (Dunifon et al,1998), correct training is likely to lead to higher motivation amongst the employees. There are also benefits for the Line Managers themselves. Their people management skills will improve, they will become better at creating good teams, managing teamwork and interpersonal skills (Maslows fulfillment of social and esteem needs) (reference). This will in turn benefit the organisation as a whole (Gibb 2003). It has also been suggested (McHugh et al 1999) that Line Managers can input effectively into organisational change with their enhanced role and ability to communicate to all team members. Baron (2003) has also suggested that the LM have a lot of impact on employee motivation. Moreover, LM will see an increase in the importance of and respect for their role as they take on more of the devolved functions and their job becomes more complex, and also as change within organisations increases with the complexity of modern working life (MacNeil 2003). Further studies show the advantages of devolution of HR functions to Line Management. Kulik and Perry (2008) provided evidence for the positive effects of devolution with their study of 174 HR managers and directors. They asked them to assess change over the preceding years in overall responsibility, degree of integration with other units and involvement in organisational strategy. They found that devolution had an overall positive effect in that respondents reported that devolution led to their HR unit being perceived more positively by LM than in non-devolved organisations. They also report an overall increase in HR responsibility and better integration with Line Management. They conclude that HR is in fact better able to play the strategic role they were intended to play by the devolution (Kulik and Perry 2008). Renwick (2003) looked at the attitudes of 40 Line Managers towards the devolution of HR functions and discovered a rather more mixed response. Ther e were both negatives and positives about the devolution. Positive aspects included the willingness of LM to take on both responsibility and accountability for the new HR tasks, and a flexibility in approach as well as keenness to become involved. The respondents were successfully managing large numbers of employees, and taking a professional attitude to the new tasks, not simply dismissing them as soft aspects of the job. They also saw HR in a positive light, a source of help and support as well as seeing career benefits for taking on the new role (Renwick, 2003). Maxwell and Watson (2004) studied employees of Hilton, finding that there was a strong sense of responsibility amongst managers for their team members and also strong feelings of support for them (4.51 mean and 4.40 mean on scale of 1 to 5 where 1 is disagree strongly and 5 agree strongly). There was however less senses of responsibility towards the company as a whole. The commitment was primarily towards the team and the individuals in it (Maxwell and Watson 2004). Line Management vs. Motivation Through devolution the line managers have gained the opportunity of directly affecting the motivation levels of their employees (Baron 2003). According to Baron (2003) through devolution the line managers are faced with the challenges of motivating and leading the teams effectively. There are many theories related to leadership and a variety of opinions exists as to its nature. The definition of leadership provided by Sutherland and Conwell (2004) says that it is an individual capacity of inciting and inspiring the actions of people in a given direction. They also argue that leadership is different to management and that there is a significant distinction between the two concepts. The so-called people-skills are a pre-requisite for successful leadership and employee motivation. The term people skills refers simply to soft skills. Sutherland and Conwell (2004) say that soft skills management places an emphasis on employees and motivation as a means by which productivity and performance may be achieved (Sutherland and Conwell 2004). The soft skills of the line managers have always been a substantial part of the job and have now been connected to motivation with the emergence of the devolution approach to management. A key part of taking on people skills requires an understanding of the role of tacit knowledge and how to communicate it (Nonaka, 1991). Tacit knowledge is knowledge which is not part of conscious awareness but which represents a high level of skill. It can be either of a type which can be articulated to others easily (e.g. the position of letters on a keyboard) or that which is harder to pass on as it has to be learned (e.g. touch typing). The task of passing on the tacit knowledge of employees is therefore a greater challenge to line managers but because of his or her close relationship with employees the chance of being aware of it and teamwork is greater than with the traditional HR department (MacNeil 2003). The need for more involvement with people is therefore clear. It has further been suggested that people become demotivated at work not because they are unhappy with pay or conditions but because they become frustrated with the lack of organisational recognition or with the lack of opportunity for developing within the organisation in terms of their skills and experience (Hay 2002, Gibb 2003). It therefore becomes clear that job satisfaction and motivation under the new conditions needs to be maintained in employees and this function is now being passed on to the Line Managers. Therefore, it is important to describe what the Line Management role needs to be to foster higher motivation among the employees. Problems with the new proposed Line Manager Role A number of problems with the new tasks and responsibilities of Line Managers has been noted, although one way of approaching these is to see them as areas which can be impr oved. Problems fall into a number of distinct areas. Are Line Managers qualified to do the new role? The new role puts a much greater emphasis on solid communication levels and strong relationships between Line Managers and their stakeholders. However, difficulties with both may arise and these can appear in different ways. The Line Manager may fear disputes with their staff regarding decisions made about performance, pay and career development (Cunningham and Hyman 1995). They may be reluctant to take on role of learning facilitator, and personal personality clashes might impact upon employee training. Relationships between employees and management may not be as neutral as is possible with a dedicated HR department (Gibb 2003). Problems are also common between HR and LM. Cunningham and Hyman (1995) stress the inherent difficulty in attempting to transfer an HR vision to employee relations. Moreover, HR can give poor advice to management. The relationship between HR and the line can be marked by lack of clarity. To what extent does LM influence the development of HR strategy, for instance? Papalexandris et al (2005) argues that this lack of a two-way process can be frustrating for Line Managers (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). There can also be an assumption on the part of HR that line managers are more technically competent and knowledgeable than they in fact are, and that the HR function can be picked up by simply doing the job. This can lead to a lack of training offered by senior management and hence to poor performance (Brewster and Larsen 2000, MacNeil 2003). Another problem, highlighted in a study by McConville of middle managers, was a lack of trust between middle and senior management which meant that the middle managers felt powerless to exert any influence over higher levels of decision making (McConville 2006). Cunningham and Hyman (1999) found in addition that there was evidence for poor leadership from HR and a low quality of advice given to LM. Training was also poor, with little ongoing development to help LM integrate personnel aspects into their role (Cunningham and Hyman 1999). Further tensions arose because of conflicts between line and HR over the precise lines drawn between their functions (Renwick 2003). Moreover, perceptions of the new role of a LM can further vary between HR and a LM. It has been suggested that HR managers are more positive than line managers about the benefits of devolution for the organisation in terms of both employee satisfaction, motivation and overall organisational performance ( reference). There is also a difference between the way the LM and HR see the reasons for devolution, with HR seeing the benefits for individual departments whilst a LM will see the exercise as primarily one to cut costs (Kulik and Bainbridge 2006). Furthermore, a LM perceives their skill set very differently than do HR. A study shows, for example, that Line Managers viewed themselves as go od at all aspects of HR including recruitment, personal relations, training and appraisals, while HR saw the line managers as much less able in all respects (Cunningham and Hyman 1995). In general, HR Managers usually identify themselves more as part of the organisation as a whole. They also believe that Line Managers do more HR work than they in fact do (Maxwell and Watson 2006). Additionally, HR believe they support a LM more than a LM believes they are supported by HR. HR also believe that a LM puts up barriers to integration (LMs do not think this); and that LMs are less competent at HR than LMs believe themselves to be (Maxwell and Watson 2006). These areas of disagreement can lead to less trust between the two groups and hence to a deterioration in performance and integration (Maxwell and Watson 2006). Wesselink distinguishes five areas of difference in belief between the two functions: desire (LMs and HR want different things), capacity (LMs spend less time on HR than HR t hink they should), competency (LMs believe themselves to be more competent at HR than HR think they are), support (HR think they give sufficient support to LMs: LMs disagree) and policies and procedures (LMs think them unclear, HR disagree) (Wesselink 2008). LMs work load will there be enough time for staff motivation? The LM work load will increase with new responsibilities and the need to balance other demands of the job with new role. This can lead to a resentment of HR and reluctance to get involved with HR work (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). Maxwell and Watson also identify heavy work loads and job pressure as a major source of problems with devolution (Maxwell and Watson 2004) as does Renwick (2003). Whittaker and Marchington (2003) suggest that time constraints mean that LM do not have time to attend in full to people management issues, tending rather to concentrate on the day-to-day running of their department and solving problems as they appear . The shorta ge of time and consequent pressures upon LM is particularly problematic in the public sector where there is added pressure from having to implement policies originating with government while also dealing with professional bodies standards, monitoring and also the increasing commercialisation of the sector (McConville 2006). It can be argued that HR and LM operate from fundamentally distinct viewpoints with different priorities, which can also lead to conflict and problems. Line Managers are typically very involved in the day-to-day running of the department, reacting to issues as they arise. They can resent the need for staff to take time off for training and resent the need to take such a personal viewpoint, perhaps dealing with their own problems with home life for example. The characteristic LM approach can mean less opportunity for staff development. While a separate HR department is focused upon learning and staff training, line managers have more than one focus, so, for exa mple, if the department is short-staffed any training and development might be put to one side. There would be a pressure to deal with short-term problem rather than address the long-term solution (Gibb 2003). Considering that LMs may not be qualified to do the new HR support role (e.g. motivation), in order for the role to be effective, strong HR support would be required. However, there is some evidence that Line Managers feel less supported by HR than they would ideally like (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). Some LM perceive HR specialists to be out of touch with reality, both in terms of LM function and with the business as whole, feeling that they base their decisions on principles that have little to do with either the nature of the industry or the problems faced by the line. HR are further seen to frustrate Line Management with legal constraints or union issues; to be slow in acting, wanting to go into a great deal of detail before anything is done; and to prefer th eory over practice with a particular liking for the type of theory that fails to translate well or quickly into practical action (Whittaker and Marchington 2003). They are seen to live in something of an ivory tower, their remoteness underlined by they preference for intranet communication and email over person-to-person contact (Whittaker and Marchington 2003). A further area of concern is skills. LM lack the specialist skills of the HR department (Whittaker and Marchington 2003) also Renwick (2003). Hence the quality of training in the organisation might fall. Neither are line managers as good at evaluating training materials or delivery (Gibb 2003). Line Managers can also be suspicious of HR specialisms, dismissing their ideas as faddish or, on the other hand just common sense. They downplay the need for HR systems, and this can lead to inconsistencies in approach and function (Whittaker and Marchington 2003). Theoretically, how can Line Managers lack of training be overcom e? Studies have suggested that as power is devolved to the line, the new relationship between HR and LMs does indeed work as a partnership, with most line managers reporting the existence of such a partnership between their departments and HR, with HR taking on a support role (Whitaker and Marchington 2003). While there might be challenges in establishing a partnership between HR and the line manager, and the line manager and their employees, the existence of a synergy between them clearly enhances a companies function and should be encouraged (Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). Partners are interdependent and share information and workload as well as vision and objectives. The aim is to provide a seamless experience for the beneficiaries of partnership (Glasby and Littlechild 2004, Axelrod 2004, Seidle 1995). The following study will take the following aspects of partnership as key: collaboration/working together as a team (sharing work, information and power), shared vision and objectives, motivation and commitment. Ulrich is one of the most vocal proponents of a partnership approach. He writes primarily of the need for HR to work as strategic partners, but also discusses the need for partnership between HR and LMs. He identifies four key roles for HR partner in strategy execution; administrative expert; employee champion; and change agent. Of these four roles, the first is overtly identified as a partnership relationship, but the third can also be seen as fostering a partnership approach. For Ulrich, the focus is firmly upon employees and their needs in order to increase their commitment, motivation, retention rates and capabilities (Ulrich 1998, Lammergaard 2009). Ulrichs (1998) views on partnership and HR will inform the background to this research study and will inform the structure of the questionnaire. ( Defenition of partnership needed here) variables involved in an employee-employer exchange, before we proceed to define in-equity formally. Having defined it, we shall analyze its ef fects. Finally, such evidence as is available will be presented in support of the theory. Throughout we shall emphasize some of the simpler aspects of inequity and try to refrain from speculating about many of the engaging, often complex, relationships between inequity and other phenomena, and about what might be termed higher order inequities. In the exposition that follows we shall also refer principally to wage inequities, in part because of their importance and in part because of the availability of methods to measure the marginal utility of wages (Adams, 1961; Jeffrey Jones, 1961). It should be evident, however, that the theoreti- cal notions advanced are relevant to any so-cial situation in which an exchange takes place, whether the exchange be of the type taking place between man and wife, between football teammates, between teacher and stu-dent, or even, between Man and his God. Summary From the literature review the following conclusions can be made and they will be then compared to the findings of the data analysis. First and foremost, the devolution of HR functions has both advantages and disadvantages (Renwick 2003, Maxwell and Watson 2004, Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005). There is an approach suggested by Ulrich (1998) that envisions devolution as a multi-level partnership used to minimise the disadvantages of the devolution and to maximise its benefits. Various studies underline the importance of interpersonal skills for the boosting of employee motivation, job satisfaction and performance (Gibb 2003, Papalexandris and Panayotopoulou 2005, MacNeil 2003, Hay 2002, McHugh et al 1999). The literature has also found that in order to achieve motivation, a large number of personal/individual variables will need to be taken into account. The proximity of Line Managers to the employees gives LMs a higher chance of achieving the desired motivation. Finally, it was also found, that the devolution process is likely to be complex and due to the lack of the emperial work in this specific topic, it can not be said that it will be successful.

Cremation Business Plan - 4766 Words

HOLY GARDENS CREMATORIUM – BUSINESS PLAN I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A. INTRODUCTION Cremation has been constantly gaining acceptance here in the Philippines especially in areas where there are crematoriums such as Manila, Quezon City, Paranaque, and other leading cities in the Philippines. Although inhumation or traditional burial is still largely practiced in the Philippines, many Filipinos are now welcoming the cremation for variety of reasons such as, practicality and affordability, simple, cleanest process and speeds up natural process. The demands for cremations is now at its peak especially when the Catholic Church permitted the cremation as a legitimate mode of disposing the dead body, and it was justified the existence of†¦show more content†¦To increase the sales of at least 20% yearly 3. To be the pioneer in the cremation industry V. VISION To be the number one crematorium in Eastern Rizal VI. MISSION To have branches in leading cities in the Philippines in three years time such as Batangas, Laguna, La Union, Pangasinan. VII. MARKETING STRATEGY The Holy Gardens Crematorium will cater services not just the clients of Funeraria Royale but also to the other Funeral Service. They will serve as the primary clients or customers of the Crematorium. A. PRODUCT 1. Cremation Only 2. Cremation with Urn B. PRICING STRATEGY 1. Cremation Only - 18,000.00 ( 15,000.00 for the first three months of operation ) 2. Cremation with Urn – 20,000.00 C. ADVERTISING AND PROMOTION 1. Posting of Tarpaulin, Banners and Steamer in busy areas 2. Giving of brochures and flyers during interment 3. Direct Sales Marketing to the existing clients of Holy Gardens 4. Personally visit and talk to the funeral service in Rizal 5. Posting of Ads in our Website VIII. WHAT ARE THE START UP COST? Initial investment is approximately 5 million consists of the following equipments for cremator/retort: cremator chamber, loading door, chamber floor, steel stack, controls, retrieval hopper, and shalane and other pre-operating expenses, that will be finance by the Unisun Group of Companies. IX. FINANCIALShow MoreRelatedThe Death Of The Funeral Business1089 Words   |  5 Pagesmore so relates to a party than a funeral. â€Å"The Death of the Funeral Business† also raises many questions to be pondered by the reader. Hingston says, â€Å"A societal changeover from burial to cremation is momentous for our culture. It signals a cataclysmic shift in how we think about our bodies and ourselves† (38). The questions that arise from this quote are what parallels may Hingston be trying to draw between the trend in cremation and the way we â€Å"think about our bodies and ourselves?† Why may sheRead MoreA Statement On The Funeral Ceremony841 Words   |  4 Pages1. 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